THE JEWELRY SHINE

Archive for March, 2010

Amber pendants

Jewellery art using computer aided design.

Jewellery (pronounced /ˈdʒuːəlri/ or /ˈdʒuːələri/) or jewelry (see American and British English spelling differences) signifies items of personal adornment, such as necklaces, rings, brooches, earrings and bracelets. Jewellery may be made from any material, such as gemstones, precious metals or shells, besides other materials, depending on cultural differences and availability of materials. Jewellery may be appreciated because of geometric or other patterns, or meaningful symbols. (Items such as belts and handbags etc. are considered to be accessories rather than jewellery.)

The word jewellery is derived from the word jewel, which was Anglicised from the Old French “jouel” circa the 13th century.^[1] Further tracing leads back to the Latin word “jocale“, meaning plaything. Jewellery is one of the oldest forms of body adornment; recently found 100,000 year-old beads made from Nassarius shells, are thought to be the oldest known jewellery.^[2]

Jewellery is sometimes seen as wealth storage or functionally as holding a garment or hair together. It has from very early times also been regarded as a form of personal adornment. The first pieces of jewellery were made from natural materials, such as bone, animal teeth, shell, wood and carved stone. More exotic jewellery was probably made for wealthy people or as indications of social status. In some cases people were buried with their jewellery.

Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings and many more types of jewellery. While high-quality jewellery is made with gemstones and precious metals, such as silver or gold, there is also a growing demand for art jewellery where design and creativity is prized above material value. In addition, there is the less costly costume jewellery, made from lower value materials and mass-produced. Other variations include wire sculpture (wrap) jewellery, using anything from base metal wire with rock tumbled stone to precious metals and precious gemstones.

Form and function

Kenyan man wearing tribal beads

Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons:

• Currency, wealth display and storage,
• Functional use (such as clasps, pins and buckles)
• Symbolism (to show membership or status)
• Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards),^[3]
• Artistic display

Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in the form of jewellery, or create jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example being the use of slave beads.^{[citation needed]}

Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished.^[4]

Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix or Jewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice of married people wearing a wedding ring.

Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylized versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art).^[5]

Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take primacy.^{[citation needed]} It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Peter Carl Fabergé and René Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and wealth.^{[citation needed]} This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris and Ed Levin.

Materials and methods

It has been suggested that Jewellery making be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

Anticlastic forged sterling bracelet.

In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery – bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, titanium or silver. Most American and European gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity (41.7% pure gold), (though in the UK the number is 9K (37.5% pure gold) and is typically found up to 18K (75% pure gold). Higher purity levels are less common with alloys at 22 K (91.6% pure gold), and 24 K (99.9% pure gold) being considered too soft for jewellery use in America and Europe. These high purity alloys, however, are widely used across Asia, the Middle East and Africa.^{[citation needed]} Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used.

Bead embroidery design.

Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; and even plastics. Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will cause an English Assay office (the building which gives English jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) to destroy the piece.^{[citation needed]}

Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and rings. Beads may be large or small, the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the “woven” style of beaded jewellery. Another use of seed beads is an embroidery technique where seed beads are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African cultures.

Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmasters developed crystalline glass, enamelled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (goldstone), multicoloured glass (millefiori), milk-glass (lattimo) and imitation gemstones made of glass.^{[citation needed]} As early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were popular.^{[citation needed]}

Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving and “cold-joining” (using adhesives, staples and rivets to assemble parts).^[6]

Diamonds

Diamonds.

Diamonds were first mined in India.^[7] Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas;^[8] In 2005, Australia, Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production.^[9][10]

The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g).

Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.^{[citation needed]}

Other gemstones

Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are:

Amber: Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least 1 million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old.

Amethyst: Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark.

Spanish emerald and gold pendant at Victoria and Albert Museum.

Emerald: Emeralds are one of the three main precious gemstones (along with rubies and sapphires) and are known for their fine green to bluish green colour. They have been treasured throughout history, and some historians report that the Egyptians mined emerald as early as 3500 BC.

Jade: Jade is most commonly associated with the colour green, but can come in a number of other colours as well. Jade is closely linked to Asian culture, history, and tradition, and is sometimes referred to as the “stone of heaven.”

Jasper: Jasper is a gemstone of the chalcedony family that comes in a variety of colours. Often, jasper will feature unique and interesting patterns within the coloured stone. Picture jasper is a type of jasper known for the colours (often beiges and browns) and swirls in the stone’s pattern.

Quartz: Quartz refers to a family of crystalline gemstones of various colours and sizes. Among the well-known types of quartz are rose quartz (which has a delicate pink colour), and smoky quartz (which comes in a variety of shades of translucent brown). A number of other gemstones — like Amethyst and Citrine — are also part of the quartz family. Rutilated quartz is a popular type of quartz containing needle-like inclusions.

Ruby: Rubies are known for their intense red colour, and are among the most highly valued precious gemstones. Rubies have been treasured for millennia. In Sanskrit, the word for ruby is “ratnaraj”, meaning “king of precious stones.”

Sapphire: The most popular form of sapphire is blue sapphire, which is known for its medium to deep blue colour and strong saturation. Fancy coloured sapphires in various colours are also available. In the United States, blue sapphire tends to be the most popular and most affordable of the three major precious gemstones (emerald, ruby and sapphire).

Turquoise: Turquoise is found in only a few places on earth, and the world’s largest turquoise producing region is the southwest United States. Turquoise is prized for its attractive colour — most often an intense medium blue or a greenish blue — and its ancient heritage. Turquoise is used in a great variety of jewellery styles. It is perhaps most closely associated with southwest and Native American jewellery, but it is also used in many sleek, modern styles. Some turquoise contains a matrix of dark brown markings, which provides an interesting contrast to the gemstone’s bright blue colour.

Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals.^[11]

Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, an example is the cubic zirconia, used in place of the diamond.^[12]

Metal finishes

An example of gold plated jewellery

For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered. High-polished jewellery is by far the most common and gives the metal the highly-reflective and shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery and is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look, and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving ‘brush strokes’. Hammered finishes are typically created by using a soft, rounded hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture.
Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a desired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of .999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or may be plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium for a more attractive finish.^[13]

Impact on society

Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only certain ranks could wear rings;^[14] Later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery; again based on rank. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered “effeminate” in the 19th and early 20th centuries. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups, but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, the hip hop culture has popularized the slang term bling-bling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women.

Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularize wedding rings for men — which caught on — as well as engagement rings for men – which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had Medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s.^[15] Religion has also played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social taboo,^[16] and many religions have edicts against excessive display.^[17] In Christianity, the New Testament gives injunctions against the wearing of gold, in the writings of the apostles Paul and Peter. In Revelation 17, “the great whore” or false religious system, is depicted as being “decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand.” (Rev. 17:4)

History

The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.

Early history

The first signs of jewellery came from the people in Africa. Perforated beads made from snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago.

Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant.

Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen.^[4]

[edit] Egypt

Amulet pendant (254 BCE) made from gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian, 14 cm wide.

An 18th dynasty pharaonic era princess’ crown

The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago.^[18] The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolize power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods.

In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass in place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewellery was very important, as different colours meant different things; the Book of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while green jewellery meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s borders, most other materials for jewellery were found in or near Egypt, for example in the Red Sea, where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra’s favourite gem, the emerald. Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces.

Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.^[18]

Europe and the Middle East

Mesopotamia

By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artifacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals.^[19]

Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols; they employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonné, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.^[20]

Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery:

1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five.
1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device.
1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli beads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp.^[21]

Greece

Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BCE.

The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1,400 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different materials were soon utilized.

Pendant with naked woman, made from electrum, Rhodes, around 630-620 BCE.

Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the “Evil Eye” or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and gemstones, bronze and clay copies were made also.

Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BCE.

They worked two styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else.^[22]

Rome

Roman Amethyst intaglio engraved gem, c. 212 CE; later regarded as of St. Peter.

Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled England, fossilized wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants which could be filled with perfume.

Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the “Evil Eye” given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with a engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an practice that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.^[18]

Middle Ages

Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothèque nationale de France.

6th century bronze eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonné fibula from Guadalajara, Spain, using glass-paste fillings in imitation of garnets.

Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills; the Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and to a lesser extent signet rings are the most common artefacts known to us; a particularly striking celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seems to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are illustrative; the young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle.^[23] The Celts specialized in continuous patterns and designs; while Merovingian designs are best known for stylized animal figures.^[24] They were not the only groups known for high quality work; note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England, are a particularly well-known example.^[18] On the continent, cloisonné and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period.

Byzantine wedding ring.

The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however; Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner.^[25]

Renaissance

Sardonyx cameo.

The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade lead to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings.^[26] Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France.

When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleon’s rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon’s wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers; a practice which continues to this day.

Romanticism

Mourning jewellery in the form of a jet brooch, 19th century.

Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the public’s fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology, and the fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also lead to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes, lead to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work; one such artist was the French goldsmith Françoise Désire Froment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert; and allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one.^[27]

In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany’s put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery, and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln; later it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany’s. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio had been born; a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage.

This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West; collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists lead to Shakudō plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885).^[28] Perhaps the grand finalé – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith’s art.

Art Nouveau

In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style. Very closely related were the German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts Movement. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonné and plique a jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures and the female silhouette. René Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognized by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists’ Colony and Wiener Werkstätte provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co. and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller’s art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself; Lalique’s dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognizable design feature. The end of World War One once again changed public attitudes; and a more sober style came in.^[29]

Art Deco

Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of “no barriers between artists and craftsmen” lead to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminum were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself; in the west, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow (although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s).

Jewish jewellery

Jewellery has been a part of Jewish culture since Biblical times. There are references in the Bible to the wearing of jewellery, both as a decoration and as a symbol. Now, Jewish jewellery is worn to show affiliation with Judaism, as well as talismans and amulets.

One of the most common symbols in Jewish jewellery is the Star of David. Another popular symbol is the Hamsa, also known as the “Hamesh hand”. The Hamsa appears often in a stylized form, as a hand with three fingers raised, and sometimes with two thumbs arranged symmetrically. Its five fingers are said to symbolize the five books if the Torah. The symbol is used for protection and as a talisman to ward off the Evil eye in amulets and charms and can also be found in various places such as home entrances and cars. It is also common to place other symbols in the middle of the Hamsa that are believed to help against the evil eye such as fish, eyes and the Star of David. The colour blue, or more specifically light blue, is also considered protective against the evil eye and many Hamsas are in that colour or with embedded gemstones in different shades of blue.

The Chai is also a popular Jewish motif for necklaces.

Other motifs found in Jewish jewellery are symbols from the Kabbalah, such as the Merkaba, a three-dimensional Star of David, and the Tree of life. Pieces of jewellery are decorated with parts or initials of known Jewish prayers and with 3-letters combinations, believed to represent different names of the Jewish God.

Asia

Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century BC.

In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years.^[30] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago.

China

One of the earliest cultures to begin making jewellery in Asia was the Chinese around 5,000 years ago. Chinese jewellery designs were very religion-oriented and contained Buddhist symbols, a tradition which continues to this day.

The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more often than gold, and decorated it with their favourite colour, blue. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone, and was fashioned using diamonds. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability and beauty.^[4] The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BCE show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine; hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west.^[31]

Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)

In China, jewellery was worn frequently by both sexes to show their nobility and wealth. However, in later years, it was used to accentuate beauty. Women wore highly detailed gold and silver head dresses and other items, while men wore decorative hat buttons, which showed rank, and gold or silver rings. Women also wore strips of gold on their foreheads, much like women in the Indus Valley. The band was an early form of tiara and was often decorated with precious gems. The most common piece of jewellery worn by in China was the earring, which was worn by both men and women. Amulets were also common too, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. In fact, dragons, Chinese symbols and also phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs.

The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves; most Chinese graves found by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery.^[32]

India

The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and Mahabharata times. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some 5000 years.^[30] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization. By 1,500 BC the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces and metallic bangles. Before 2,100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole drilled through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through family; children of bead makers often learnt how to work beads from a young age.

Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In India today, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and women’s hair. The beads were about one millimetre long.

A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle (a bracelet) on her left hand.

India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. This trade almost vanished 1,000 years after Christianity grew as a religion, as Christians rejected the diamonds which were used in Indian religious amulets. Along with Arabians from the Middle East restricting the trade, India’s diamond jewellery trade lulled.

Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are still used and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.^[32]

Americas

Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs, the Mixtecs, the Mayans and numerous Andean cultures like the Mochica of Peru created beautiful pieces of jewellery.

With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture.^[33]

Moche Ear Ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru

Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from birds. The main purpose of Aztec jewellery was to draw attention, with richer and more powerful Aztecs wearing brighter, more expensive jewellery and clothes. Although gold was the most common and popular material used in Aztec jewellery, silver was also readily available throughout the American empires. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices.^[18][27]

Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making was the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze and copper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish head dresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs.^[32]

In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.^[34]

Pacific

Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces.

Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses.

Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures; some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations which were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer’s devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.^[35]

A modern opal bracelet

Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 1800s, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific.^[36]

One of the few cultures to today still create their jewellery as they did many centuries prior is the New Zealand Māori, who create Hei-tiki. The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent; it may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion from historians is that the Tiki is a product of the ancient belief of a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris settled in New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone (commonly whale), nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual process. The Hei-tiki is now popular amongst tourists who can buy it from souvenir or jeweller shops.

Other than jewellery created through Māori influence, jewellery in New Zealand remains similar to other western civilizations; multi cultural and varied. This is more noticeable in New Zealand because of its high levels of non-European citizens.^[35]

Modern

The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC) and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Mikimoto Kōkichi and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population.

The “jewellery as art” movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century.

The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades stradling the year 2000: “Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM.”^[37]

Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum.^[38]

Body modification

Young girl from the Padaung tribe.

Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain; the use of simple silver studs, rings and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings, are themselves a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear.

Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity.^[39] Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes, or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and First Nations peoples of the northwest coast.^[40] Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples.

In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred.

In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipient’s skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This practice is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks.^[39]

Jewellery market

According to a recent KPMG study^[41] the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India and China and the Middle East each with 8 – 9% and finally Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe’s and Japan’s marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries: Italy and the UK.

Gifts under a Christmas tree.

A gift or a present is the transfer of something without the expectation of receiving something in return. Although gift-giving might involve an expectation of reciprocity, a gift is meant to be free.

In many human societies, the act of mutually exchanging money, goods, etc. may contribute to social cohesion. Economists have elaborated the economics of gift-giving into the notion of a gift economy.

By extension the term gift can refer to anything that makes the other happier or less sad, especially as a favor, including forgiveness and kindness.

Presentation

Traditional envelope containing money as a gift, from Japan

When material objects are given as gifts, in many cultures they are traditionally packaged in some manner.

For example, in Western culture, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a gift note which may note the occasion, the recipient’s name, and the giver’s name. In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck.

Occasions

The occasion may be:

• Expression of love (Valentine’s Day) or friendship.
• Expression of gratitude for a gift received.
• Expression of piety, in the form of charity.
• Expression of solidarity, in the form of mutual aid.
• To share wealth.
• To offset misfortune.
• Offering travel souvenirs.
• Custom, on occasions (often celebrations) such as
  • A birthday (the person who has his or her birthday gives cake, etc. and/or receives gifts) This is most commonly from a family member or girlfriend/boyfriend.
  • A potlatch, in societies where status is associated with gift-giving rather than acquisition.
  • Christmas (People give each other gifts, often supposedly receiving them from Santa Claus.)
  • Saint Nicholas (People give each other gifts, often supposedly receiving them from Saint Nicholas.)
  • A wedding (the couple receives gifts and gives food and/or drinks at the wedding reception.)
  • A wedding anniversary (each spouse receives gifts.)
  • A funeral (visitors bring flowers, the relatives of the deceased give food and/or drinks after the ceremonial part.)
  • A birth (the baby receives gifts, or the mother receives a gift from the father known as a push present.)
  • Passing an examination (the student receives gifts.)
  • Father’s Day (the father receives gifts.)
  • Mother’s Day (the mother receives gifts.)
  • Exchange of gifts between a guest and a host, often a traditional practice.
  • Lagniappe.

Legal aspects of gifts

At common law, for a gift to have legal effect, it was required that there be (1) intent by the donor to give a gift, and (2) delivery to the recipient of the item to be given as a gift. In some countries, certain types of gifts above a certain monetary amount are subject to taxation.

Gifts may also be from a wealthy person, hoping that someone will reflect their largess.

Religious views

Ritual sacrifices can be seen as return gifts to a deity.

Lewis Hyde remarks in The Gift that Christianity considers the Incarnation and subsequent death of Jesus to be the greatest gift to humankind, and that the Jataka contains a tale of the Buddha in his incarnation as the Wise Hare giving the ultimate alms by offering himself up as a meal for Sakka. (Hyde, 1983, 58-60)

In the Eastern Orthodox Church the bread and wine that are consecrated during the Divine Liturgy are referred to as “the Gifts.” They are first of all the gifts of the community (both individually and corporately) to God, and then, after the epiklesis, the Gifts of the Body and Blood of Christ to the Church.

In the Judeo-Christian tradition God is seen as the source and giver of all good things: But who am I, and who are my people, that we could give anything to you? Everything we have has come from you, and we give you only what you first gave us! 1 Chronicles 29:14 New Living Tradition (NLT). Life on earth is considered one of God’s gifts: And it is a good thing to receive wealth from God and the good health to enjoy it. To enjoy your work and accept your lot in life—this is indeed a gift from God. Ecclesiastes 5:19 (NLT).

In the Christian tradition Jesus is seen as a gift of God, For God loved the world so much that he gave his one and only Son, so that everyone who believes in him will not perish but have eternal life. John 3:16 (NLT)

The Holy Spirit is also seen as a gift of God: Peter replied, “Each of you must repent of your sins, turn to God, and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ to show that you have received forgiveness for your sins. Then you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Acts 2:38 (NLT).

Eternal life is considered one of God’s gifts to believers: For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life through Christ Jesus our Lord. Romans 6:23 (NLT)

God also is seen as giving all people spiritual gifts to enrich their lives, help others, and to build up the church: However, he has given each one of us a special gift through the generosity of Christ. Ephesians 4:7 (NLT).

Modern dance

Dance (from French danser, perhaps from Frankish) is an art form that generally refers to movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music,^[1] used as a form of expression, social interaction or presented in a spiritual or performance setting.

Dance may also be regarded as a form of nonverbal communication between humans, and is also performed by other animals (bee dance, patterns of behaviour such as a mating dance). Gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are sports that incorporate dance, while martial arts kata are often compared to dances. Motion in inanimate objects may also be described as dances (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as folk dance) to virtuoso techniques such as ballet. Dance can be participatory, social or performed for an audience. It can also be ceremonial, competitive or erotic. Dance movements may be without significance in themselves, such as in ballet or European folk dance, or have a gestural vocabulary/symbolic system as in many Asian dances. Dance can embody or express ideas, emotions or tell a story.

Dancing has evolved many styles. Breakdancing and Krumping are related to the hip hop culture. African dance is interpretive. Ballet, Ballroom, Waltz, and Tango are classical styles of dance while Square and the Electric Slide are forms of step dances.

Every dance, no matter what style, has something in common. It not only involves flexibility and body movement, but also physics. If the proper physics is not taken into consideration, injuries may occur.

Choreography is the art of creating dances. The person who creates (i.e., choreographs) a dance is known as the choreographer.

Origins and history of dance

Eighteenth century social dance. Translated caption: A cheerful dance awakens love and feeds hope with lively joy, (Florence, 1790).

Dance does not leave behind clearly identifiable physical artifacts such as stone tools, hunting implements or cave paintings. It is not possible to say when dance became part of human culture. Dance has certainly been an important part of ceremony, rituals, celebrations and entertainment since before the birth of the earliest human civilizations. Archeology delivers traces of dance from prehistoric times such as the 9,000 year old Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka paintings in India and Egyptian tomb paintings depicting dancing figures from circa 3300 BC.

One of the earliest structured uses of dances may have been in the performance and in the telling of myths. It was also sometimes used to show feelings for one of the opposite gender. It is also linked to the origin of “love making.” Before the production of written languages, dance was one of the methods of passing these stories down from generation to generation. ^[2]

Another early use of dance may have been as a precursor to ecstatic trance states in healing rituals. Dance is still used for this purpose by many cultures from the Brazilian rainforest to the Kalahari Desert.^[3]

Sri Lankan dances goes back to the mythological times of aboriginal yingyang twins and “yakkas” (devils). According to a Sinhalese legend, Kandyan dances originate, 250 years ago, from a magic ritual that broke the spell on a bewitched king. Many contemporary dance forms can be traced back to historical, traditional, ceremonial, and ethnic dance.

Dance classification and genres

Dancing

Partner dance.

Dance categories by number of interacting dancers are mainly solo dance, partner dance and group dance. Dance is performed for various purposes like ceremonial dance, erotic dance, performance dance, social dance etc.

Dancing and music

Many early forms of music and dance were created and performed together. This paired development has continued through the ages with dance/music forms such as: jig, waltz, tango, disco, salsa, electronica and hip-hop. Some musical genres also have a parallel dance form such as baroque music and baroque dance whereas others developed separately: classical music and classical ballet.

Although dance is often accompanied by music, it can also be presented independently or provide its own accompaniment (tap dance). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed in time to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be danced to its own rhythm.

Ballroom dancing is an art although it may incorporates many fitness components using an artistic state of mind.

Dance studies and techniques

In the early 1920s, dance studies (dance practice, critical theory, Musical analysis and history) began to be considered an academic discipline. Today these studies are an integral part of many universities’ arts and humanities programs. By the late 20th century the recognition of practical knowledge as equal to academic knowledge lead to the emergence of practice research and practice as research. A large range of dance courses are available including:

• Professional practice: performance and technical skills
• Practice research: choreography and performance
• Ethnochoreology, encompassing the dance-related aspects of anthropology, cultural studies, gender studies, area studies, postcolonial theory, ethnography, etc.
• Dance therapy or dance-movement therapy.
• Dance and technology: new media and performance technologies.
• Laban Movement Analysis and somatic studies

Academic degrees are available from BA (Hons) to PhD and other postdoctoral fellowships, with some dance scholars taking up their studies as mature students after a professional dance career.

Dance competitions

An amateur dancesport competition at MIT.

A dance competition is an organized event in which contestants perform dances before a judge or judges for awards and, in some cases, monetary prizes. There are several major types of dance competitions, distinguished primarily by the style or styles of dances performed. Major types of dance competitions include:

• Competitive dance, in which a variety of theater dance styles—such as acro, ballet, jazz, hip-hop, lyrical, and tap—are permitted.
• Open competitions, which permit a wide variety of dance styles. A popular example of this is the TV program So You Think You Can Dance.
• Dancesport, which is focused exclusively on ballroom and latin dance. Popular examples of this are TV programs Dancing with the Stars and Strictly Come Dancing.
• Single-style competitions, such as highland dance, dance team, and Irish dance, which only permit a single dance style.

Today, there are various dances and dance show competitions on Television and the Internet.

Dance occupations

There are different careers connected with dancing: Dancer, dance teacher, dance sport coach, dance therapist and choreographer.

Dancer

Dance training differs depending on the dance form. There are university programs and schools associated with professional dance companies for specialised training in classical dance (e.g. Ballet) and modern dance. There are also smaller, privately owned dance studios where students may train in a variety of dance forms including competitive dance forms (e.g. Latin dance, ballroom dance, etc.) as well as ethnic/traditional dance forms.

Professional dancers at the Tropicana Club, Havana, Cuba, in 2008

Professional dancers are usually employed on contract or for particular performances/productions. The professional life of a dancer is generally one of constantly changing work situations, strong competition pressure and low pay. Professional dancers often need to supplement their income, either in dance related roles (e.g., dance teaching, dance sport coaches, yoga) or Pilates instruction to achieve financial stability.

In the U.S. many professional dancers are members of unions such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, the Screen Actors Guild and Actors’ Equity Association. The unions help determine working conditions and minimum salaries for their members.

Dance teachers

Dance teacher and operators of dance schools rely on reputation and marketing. For dance forms without an association structure such as Salsa or Tango Argentino they may not have formal training. Most dance teachers are self employed.

Dancesport coaches

Dancesport coaches are tournament dancers or former dancesports people, and may be recognised by a dance sport federation.

Choreographer

Choreographers are generally university trained and are typically employed for particular projects or, more rarely may work on contract as the resident choreographer for a specific dance company. A choreographic work is protected intellectual property. Dancers may undertake their own choreography.

Dance by ethnicity or region

Dance in South Asia

India

South indian folk Dance like a horse known as Poi Kal Kudirai

During the first millennium BCE in India, many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life. In the matter of dance, Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra (literally “the text of dramaturgy”) is the one of the earlier texts. Though the main theme of Natyashastra deals with drama, dance is also widely featured, and indeed the two concepts have ever since been linked in Indian culture. The text elaborates various hand-gestures or mudras and classifies movements of the various limbs of the body, gait, and so on. The Natyashastra categorised dance into four groups and into four regional varieties, naming the groups: secular, ritual, abstract, and, interpretive. However, concepts of regional geography has altered and so have regional varieties of Indian dances. Dances like “Odra Magadhi”, which after decades long debate, has been traced to present day Mithila-Orissa region’s dance form of Odissi, indicate influence of dances in cultural interactions between different regions.^[4]

From these beginnings rose the various classical styles which are recognised today. Therefore, all Indian classical dances are to varying degrees rooted in the Natyashastra and therefore share common features: for example, the mudras, some body positions, and the inclusion of dramatic or expressive acting or abhinaya. The Indian classical music tradition provides the accompaniment for the dance, and as percussion is such an integral part of the tradition, the dancers of nearly all the styles wear bells around their ankles to counterpoint and complement the percussion.

Bhangra in the Punjab

The Punjab area overlapping India and Pakistan is the place of origin of Bhangra. It is widely known both as a style of music and a dance. It is mostly related to ancient harvest celebrations, love, patriotism or social issues. Its music is coordinated by a musical instrument called the ‘Dhol’. Bhangra is not just music but a dance, a celebration of the harvest where people beat the dhol (drum), sing Boliyaan (lyrics) and dance.It developed further with the Vaisakhi festival of the Sikhs.

Morris dancing in the grounds of Wells Cathedral, Wells, England

Dances of Sri Lanka

The devil dances of Sri Lanka or “yakun natima” are a carefully crafted ritual with a history reaching far back into Sri Lanka’s pre-Buddhist past. It combines ancient “Ayurvedic” concepts of disease causation with psychological manipulation. The dance combines many aspects including Sinhalese cosmology, the dances also has an impact on the classical dances of Sri Lanka.^[5]

In Europe and North America

Concert (or performance) dance

Ballet

Harlequin and Columbine from the mime theater at Tivoli , Denmark.

Ballet developed first in Italy and then in France from lavish court spectacles that combined music, drama, poetry, song, costumes and dance. Members of the court nobility took part as performers. During the reign of Louis XIV, himself a dancer, dance became more codified. Professional dancers began to take the place of court amateurs, and ballet masters were licensed by the French government. The first ballet dance academy was the Académie Royale de Danse (Royal Dance Academy), opened in Paris in 1661. Shortly thereafter, the first institutionalized ballet troupe, associated with the Academy, was formed; this troupe began as an all-male ensemble but by 1681 opened to include women as well.^[2]

20th century concert dance

At the beginning of the 20th century, there was an explosion of innovation in dance style characterized by an exploration of freer technique. Early pioneers of what became known as modern dance include Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Mary Wigman and Ruth St. Denis. The relationship of music to dance serves as the basis for Eurhythmics, devised by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, which was influential to the development of Modern dance and modern ballet through artists such as Marie Rambert. Eurythmy, developed by Rudolf Steiner and Marie Steiner-von Sivers, combines formal elements reminiscent of traditional dance with the new freer style, and introduced a complex new vocabulary to dance. In the 1920s, important founders of the new style such as Martha Graham and Doris Humphrey began their work. Since this time, a wide variety of dance styles have been developed; see Modern dance.

The influence of African American dance

African American dances are those dances which have developed within African American communities in everyday spaces, rather than in dance studios, schools or companies and its derivatives, tap dance, disco, jazz dance, swing dance, hip hop dance and breakdance. Other dances, such as the lindy hop with its relationship to rock and roll music and rock and roll dance have also had a global influence.

The purpose of a dance costume is to enhance the dancer’s body and the concept of the choreographer (Dance Catalog 219). “Costumes are clothes and they are art. They make the invisible ideas visible” (Nadel 241). Dance costume has evolved throughout time and involves many different factors to create a costume that will engage the audience.

Professional dancers at the Tropicana Club, Havana, Cuba, in 2008

History

“Clothing worn in dance training generally reflects period, culture, and performance traditions” (Penrod 12). Throughout history clothing has become more simplified as dance becomes more physically demanding and free. In the past, dancers would dance in gardens and halls in elaborate and expensive costumes. However, in the eighteenth century they began to dance in theaters and to “discard cumbersome garments” (Penrod 13) by training in daily clothing. The ballerina Marie Tagolioni, in the nineteenth century discarded weighty costumes and began wearing what the standard ballet uniform is today, a lightweight skirt. This change allowed the image of increased physical prowess (Penrod 13). Marie Tagolioni also inspired the first tutu. As dance increased in athleticism more of the body was revealed. The hemline of the tutu grew shorter until the leg was revealed and the pelvic area was framed in a tiny skirt (Art of Production 57).

Isadora Duncan made a great impact on dance costume today. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries she “throws off the corset, bares her limbs, and dances barefoot” (Penrod 13). Duncan began a new look, inspired by the Greeks, of tunics and scarves. This simple costume inspired a new form of dance costume and new ways of moving (Penrod 13). This imitation of the Greek clothing freed the naturally beautiful lines of the human body and movement. This change in costume extended the dancer’s space, and caused the costume to be made to conform to the curves and shapes of the body as much as possible (Art of Production 57).

Requirements

Dance costume must harmonize with the dance. The costume should never hinder the movements of the dancer or attract too much attention. A costume needs to be simple and expressive (Joiner 3). Dancing in ordinary clothing restricts movements. Through dancing in a standard or elaborate costume a dancer is placed in the correct frame of mind and mood to dance. Teachers vary on what they require for dancing outfits. However, the focus should be placed on the movement and not the body shapes (Cooper 49). A costume is required to be formfitting to emphasize the visual art of architectural designs that the dancer’s body creates (Penrod 11). It is an extension of the dancer’s movement and should never be just put on. The body is the choreographer’s medium; the choreographer and costumer work together to create the right theme (Art of Production 56). Also, formfitting costumes allow teachers to see the placement of the dancer’s body, and to make sure that the movement is right. If a dancer makes a faulty placement it can weaken or injure them.

The dancer’s tights and accessories should be worn so that the line of the dancer’s body can be seen clearly. Shorts shouldn’t be worn, because they don’t protect the dancer’s legs when doing floor work, and they don’t keep the body’s heat centered in the legs. Centering body heat to the legs helps keep the dancer’s muscles warm (Art of Production 74). Also, the costume needs to accommodate quick changes (Cooper 65).

Design

The most successful costumes portray or relate to some characteristic or mood of the dance (Joiner 3). When designing dance costumes it is required to analyze the costume’s function in relation to the purpose. The main people involved with the designing of the costume are the choreographer, designer, costume maker (seamstress), and dancer. The costume should be designed according to the movements of the dancer, the budget, and to the comfort of dancer. A costume should not be just worn, the dancer needs to take advantage of its restrictions and use them to enhance the visual designs or ideas. Dance costume makes it possible to extend the potentials of the body design in space and to add new elements of stage interest (Cooper 49).

Dance costume needs to be designed with the understanding that the dancer has to move in the costume. A dance costume’s purpose is to support the concept of the dance. It should not dominate or overwhelm movement or the dancers in color, pattern, or mass. It shouldn’t look like the costume is “wearing the dancer” (Cooper 50). The costume should be designed to the theme of the dance. A dance costume needs to flatter the dancers, but can either harmonize or provide contrast to the dance (Cooper 48). The sets and costumes need to work together and work with the movements. They should allow movements to happen comfortably; so that the dancer does not have to worry about ripping their costume or losing a shoe. If a dancer is being lifted in the dance number then the costume shouldn’t have bulky fabric around the dancer’s waist or accessories that the lifter can get their fingers caught on. Dance costume should fit like second skin so that the costume moves with the body of the dancer. The costume needs to be quick and easy to fasten, this can be made possible through Velcro or hooks allow (Cooper 65). The following will discuss costumes’ design according to color, texture and pattern, material, lining, women and men, accessories, hair, and make-up.

Color

Color is the area of greatest exploration (Art of Production 58). It has a direct appeal to the audience’s emotions. Colors can either absorb or reflect light waves. Strong and intense colors tire the eyes (Guide to Dance Production 17). The designer should choose the colors of a costume while considering the amount of light it absorbs or reflects (Art of Production 58). Colors similar to violet give off a cold feeling and ones similar to red evoke a warm feeling (Guide to Dance Production 17).

The colors need to be relevant to the dance. They can be symbolic. Some examples of color being symbolic are that green creates a feeling of envy and white evokes purity. Color can isolate one dancer and should contrast with the accessories or props used throughout the dance (Ellfeldt 87). Color gives line and form depending on how it is used. Certain types of dances may require certain colors (Joiner 21).

When designing a costume one should choose colors that flatter and compliment the dancer’s body. Darker colors make the dancer appear slimmer, and lighter colors look better on a slim body. For instance, the color black appears to make the body attractive and slim (Penrod 14). Pale colors enlarge the shape of the dancer (Cooper 71). Designers should beware of loud prints or bold color combinations for they can distort the dancer’s body line and make it difficult for an instructor to determine the correct alignment of the dancer (Penrod 12). However, the designer should beware of large expanses of solid color and be cautious with how the colors are combined. Sharp contrasts of colors will chop the dancer’s body visually in two sections, not flattering the dancer. Shading the contrasting colors creates a unified appearance with the top and bottom colors of the costume. To make the light colors stand out and the dark colors recede, the colors should be shaded from light to dark. Dyeing is the most creative way to achieve color and effects. By mixing dyes one can produce a wide range of colors (Cooper 71).

If colored tights are being used they should be subdued tones. When using bright and garish colors for tights, they tend to make the dancer look larger. The top and bottom of the dancer’s costume need to blend harmoniously (Penrod 15).

Texture and Pattern

Texture and patterns emphasize or minimize parts of the dancer’s body. Some ways to create texture and pattern are through shading, patching, and tye-dying. Another way to add texture and pattern is through appliqué. Appliqué includes drawing or painting on the fabric, spraying the fabric, or stitching on to the fabric. Fabric pens are used to draw with and stencils are used for spraying on to the fabric. The stencil helps create pattern and texture, shading, and blending. When drawing on stretchy material, the dancer needs to be inside of the costume so that the design will not be distorted. When applying cut outs to the costume, the same material as the costume should be added on. For example, stretch on stretch. These cut out appliqués are either glued or stitched on to the costume (Cooper 75-77) Also, an effective addition to the dancer’s costume is layers of colors, which will be revealed when the dancer moves (Art of Production 59).

Material

When designing a costume one needs to determine the type of material that will flatter and add to the dancer’s movements. The material should illustrate the quality of the movements and the idea of the dance (Joiner 18). The Designer should also consider the amount of light the material absorbs and reflects. Dance is about movement, so the way the fabric moves is very important. The Designer should consider the way a fabric hangs or moves on the dancer when creating the costume (Guide to Dance Production 19). Light weight material moves faster and easier. Through weighting the bottom of the fabric, the costume will move in a stately fashion (Ellfeldt 85). Natural fabrics tend to breathe and move more freely with the dancer. Silk, a natural fabric made by silk worms, flows around the body like water (Art of Production 60). Skirts, soft trousers, dresses and tops are frequently made out of stretchy fabric, because it has few movement restrictions. Some good examples of soft stretchy material are jersey, silk, chiffon, georgette, and lycra. If the costume is going to be dyed then cotton or silk should be used. Natural materials take the dye better. If using stiff fabric the designer should consider the possible boxy, square, and immobile look created through this type of material (Cooper 65).

Lining

Lining and shape can place a costume in its specific era or ethnic group (Guide to Dance Production 15). The lining of a costume gives form, provides qualities of movement and direction, brings out points of interest, and determines the pattern and style of the costume (Joiner 6). Vertical lines lengthen and fine down the dancer’s body, and horizontal lines shorten and widen it (Cooper 51). When designing for a group of dancers it is more effective to use simple lines (Joiner 5).

[edit] Women and Men

Designing a costume differs when creating for either a male or female dancer. Female dancer’s standard costume includes tights that cover the legs and hips and a leotard that covers the hips and trunk (Penrod 13). Leotards are an important basic garment in which most dance costumes are based from (Harrison 8). If the tights have a seam it is worn on the back of the legs. Women can wear underwear under their tights; however, if they do wear underwear, it must never be seen. By showing the line of their underwear on the leotard the long look of the leg is destroyed. Most dancers go without underwear, but if they are uncomfortable with this then they wear a thong or bikini underwear. Dancers also require a well fitting bra. Their bra should have no metal clips or hooks that could cause damage to the dancer or a partner. If their bra doesn’t provide enough support then the breast tissue can be torn away from the underlying musculature. Sports or dance bras provide enough support and allows the dancer to move with ease (Penrod 13).

Male dancer’s standard costume includes tights and a tunic worn on the upper body. Men’s tights should be pulled up firmly in the crotch to avoid a baggy appearance. Their tights are a heavier less shear material then women’s tights, but they also wear their tights’ seams in the back. Men wear a dance belt thong under their tights for support and to keep the body aligned. Men also wear a regular belt or suspenders to hold up their tights. Suspenders give a better line and eliminate the bulky belt line. Their tunic, tight-fitting waist- length t-shirt, is either tucked into their tights or worn out. If it is worn out then it should just cover the pelvic area (Penrod 14). This tunic is fitted to allow more freedom for the male dancer’s strong movements. By adding elastics to the side seams, it provides a more fitted look (Harrison 115).

Dressing

Accessories

Dancers require certain accessories for their costumes. A dancer requires bobby pins and elastic bands for their hair, a towel to wipe away sweat, and sometimes they require knee pads. When using knee pads a thinner padding is easier to work with. A dancer should be prepared for any clothing emergency that may come (Penrod 16).

Usually a designer will apply accessories to a costume to help it relate more to the theme the dance. A designer may create false sleeves, collars, cuffs, wristbands, and shawls to emphasize the desired mood of the dance (Cooper 76). Sleeves should allow free movement at the armpit. To do this the armhole is cut very high. However, designers should avoid covering part of the neck. Covering parts of the neck disturbs alignment of the body and interrupts flow of movement. Also, they should avoid hiding the face. Any type of headdress should be placed on the back of the head so a shadow is not cast on the dancer’s face (Harrison 73).

Footwear

Various types of dance require a certain type of shoe. A few examples of dance shoes are the Pointe shoe, bare feet, ballet slipper, and tap shoes. Each shoe should be chosen to harmonize with the costume and to the comfort of the dancer. Safety and avoiding injury is most important in all dance shoes. Footwear should not draw attention to the foot; it needs to blend with the outfit. If the dance includes a lot of turning the dancer should have a cover for the balls of their feet, enabling the dancer to turn with more ease (Guide to Dance Production 37).

Hair

A dancer’s head is the main focal point (Cooper 70). The designer should keep the dancer’s hair from becoming the focus (Art of Production 125). The dancer’s hairstyle should be something practical and attractive for the dance. Long hair should be secured in such a way that it won’t fall into the face or eyes of the dancer; if it is not secured it will distract the dancer and audience (Penrod 15). The dancer should be able to move their head. The head is the heaviest part of the body and should be able to move freely. This can be done through designing the dancer’s hair with the dance movements. The designer should also consider the type of dance. An example would be if it was a pair dance. This would require the female dancer’s hair to be securely fastened to the head, not a ponytail, so that it won’t distract the other dancer. A looser hairstyle is most effective if the dance includes swinging movements, allowing the dancer’s hair to stay off their face (Cooper 70).

Make-up

The amount of make-up used on a dancer depends on the venue, lighting, and the distance of the audience. To enhance the dancer’s face and make it visible from a distance, the face’s bone structure should be emphasized, there should be a space between the eyebrows, and the eyes should stand out. The further away the audience is the bolder make-up required (Cooper 78).

The eyes are the most expressive part of the face. To enhance their features dancers should draw attention to and make their eyes appear larger. However, to maintain unity, the intensity of the eyes must be balanced with color and shape of the lips. The color of the lips needs to be complimentary to the skin color and costume (Art of Production 123). Women appear blusher, and have stronger eyes and lips (Cooper 78). Men apply a browner shade for their lips and have a stronger shadow for their jaw line. Dancers should also dust their faces with color and lightly add blush to their knuckles so it doesn’t contrast with their face (Art of Production 125).

Care

Costumes should be made with enough time to allow the dancers considerable time in the costume to make sure that the movements are right. Also, allowing time for rehearsals in the costume helps identify any problems or parts that restrict the dancer’s movements (Poor Dancer’s Almanac 25). A costume can be recycled if properly cared for. To save money, a designer can just add on accessories to the old costume (Ravelhofer 126). Costumes will last for years if they are properly cared for. They should be washed after each time they are worn. The costume should be washed in warm water alone with soap and water to prevent it from fading, rotting, and developing an odor. Hanging the costume up to dry will help keep it in good condition and in its original size. Costumes shouldn’t be stored in a locker when they are wet with perspiration (Penrod 15). They should be hung and arranged so they don’t wrinkle (Ellfeldt 174). Wrinkles can be prevented through using a hanger and plastic bag to keep your costume in (Harrison 127). If tights have runs they can be sewn, allowing the tights to have a longer life (Cooper 64).

Gifts wrapped in the traditional Japanese wrapping called Furoshiki.

Gift wrapping refers to the act of enclosing a gift in some sort of material. Wrapping paper is a kind of paper designed for gift wrapping. Gifts may also be wrapped in a box. They may be held closed with ribbon and topped with a decorative bow (an ornamental knot made of ribbon).

In Western culture, gifts are often wrapped in wrapping paper and accompanied by a gift note which may note the occasion, the receiver’s name and the giver’s name. In the United States, an additional 5 million tons of waste are generated over the Christmas gift-giving period; four million tons of this is wrapping paper and shopping bags. Some people attempt to avoid this by unwrapping gifts with care to hopefully allow the paper to be reused, while others use decorated cloth gift sacks that can be easily reused many times.

In Chinese culture, red wrapping connotes luck.

In Japanese culture, wrapping paper and boxes are common. However, the traditional cloth wrapping called furoshiki is increasing in popularity, particularly as an ecologically friendly alternative to wrapping paper.

Wrapping paper output in 2006

In Korean culture, bojagi are sometimes used for gift wrapping. A yedanbo is a ceremonial gift bojagi used to wrap wedding gifts from the bride’s family to the members of the groom’s
Adhesive gift wrap is a product that makes it possible for anyone to present a beautifully wrapped gift with clean, crisp edges. The wrapping paper adheres to the gift and itself so users do not have to hold the paper and gift in place as they fumble for tape. The gift wrap can also be repositioned easily until the desired look is achieved.

Each and every dance created and danced only comes to life when a dancer fully adapts it and becomes it. Every dance needs to be interpreted and communicated to the audience. It’s a dancer’s job to breathe life into any choreographic piece. The only way to do this is through true emotion, personality and expression. Early in performing training, a dancer forgets about their face expressions or lack thereof. As the performing skills progress a student becomes aware of their face and begins to experiment with it. Some choose to just smile…

The soul of a dance is in the face
When performance training starts to mature a dancer learns to use facial expression as the soul of their dancing. It becomes the very gesture that sells the dance to the audience as an actor sells his acting to theatre watchers. It’s the true emotion of dancing that makes it an art in the first place, without it it’s just athletics. A dancer who does not express emotion and expression during dance performances becomes uninteresting and dull.

Face expression draws attention to the dancer
One of the best tools of the trade is learning to facially adapt to the dance. Audience eyes are drawn to those dance performers who learn how to master the emotion and expression within the set choreography. The mood of the dance is what audiences interact with through interpretation, reciprocal emotion and psychological illusion. It is the actual connecting factor between the dancer and the audience, and one of most importance.

Tips on face expression
Here are a few tips to keep in mind to help with expression development:

• Let the lyrics and music guide; let the music move you!
• Give a genuine emotional response.
• Let yourself go! Just allow yourself to physically feel an emotion on stage.
• Practice emotion and facial expression during practice and class time.
• Don’t overdo it! This is not cheerleading.

The face defines the mood of the dance
Some dancers who learn how to express themselves well can sometimes go a bit overboard. An audience or a judge who sees a dancer overdo it seems to view them as acting fake. It can really interfere with the message of the dance. In cheerleading it’s another story, but in the dance world the expressions have to be natural looking. That is a part of what institutes dance an art. The artistic value of a dancer is in presenting expression and emotion, a dancer makes the choreography concept come to life by giving it true life. The body does a lot of the expressing, but the face is 50 percent of it.

Don’t overdo it!
An expression cannot be mimicked. If true emotion is not flowing from the dancer, chances are, the performance is not believable. It is up to the dancer to find a true connection with the piece. Let each facial emotion portrayed, be one of true nature. With practice and courage, facial expression will boost a dancer into the next level.

Warm Up

Leave a few minutes early for your dance lessons and give yourself some time to warm up your body before class if its cold outside. Dance injuries happen usually due to the muscles not being warm before using them. It happens more easily then you think! Wear a sweater or light jacket to start the class off and take it off after you have warmed up.

Should you buy dance shoes?

If you are thinking about buying dance shoes, there are a couple of things you might want to consider first. Are you sure you are going to be taking lessons on a regular basis? If you are just starting lessons you might want to wait and make sure you like dancing first and then go out and buy a pair.

If you are already dancing regularly at lessons and socials, you may want purchase some. Depending on what dances you are taking, will determine what type of shoes you should buy. For instance, if you are thinking of competing in Country and Western or you mostly go to social country dances, you may want to get “dance boots”. One brand is called “Evening Star”. If you want dance shoes that are good for any kind of couples dancing, you may want to consider “ballroom practice shoes”. Be careful though, there is a good $20 dollar price difference between shops for the exact same shoes. You can’t return or exchange any shoes after you have worn them. Some shops have no returns at all!

Social Dance Etiquette #1

Do not teach or criticize your social dance partners while you’re out on the social dance floor. Remember, you are out there for fun and your partner is too. It is embarrassing for the person being told how to dance. It accomplishes nothing for anyone to go home at the end of an evening of dancing and feel bad about themselves and their dance technique. I don’t criticize anyone about their dancing technique, even if they ask me to, on the social floor. Its inappropriate! Lighten up and have some fun! Let their teachers instruct them in group class or in a private lesson.

“Practice makes perfect”

Well, I don’t know about perfect but it sure helps the memory out. Even going through what you learned in class for 5 minutes ago,  when you get home makes a big difference in remembering for the following week’s lesson or social. Several times I have heard “well we can’t seem to find the time together to practice during the week with our busy schedules”. My response is “practice yourself.”  It’s amazing how going over pivot turns by yourself or thinking about where you prep to lead a turn really improves your own dancing. Then in class you can practice together. And secondly, attend some dances, if you don’t already, that’s where you can have fun socially with everyone from your group class plus get some floor time in. Who cares if you mess up, that’s why everyone else is there too, for the practice!!

“Should I be warming up before my dance lesson?”

Yes of course you should stretch before any kind of dance class or social. Muscles can be cold and tight and injured easily if your not careful. Five minutes to stretch your body a little should do the trick for social dancing.

It is very easy to hurt shoulder joints for both the ladies and the gentlemen when leading turns and following them. Even knees and hip joints due to rotating incorrectly or the wrong kind of shoes that stick to the floor.

Be careful with your body, it only takes leaving a few minutes earlier for class to give yourself enough time to stretch and warm up.

Ideas for stretching include: rolling your head around to loosen up neck joints, rolling shoulders in a backward and forward rotation as well as pushing them down and back for a feeling of proper dance posture, moving arms up above your head and behind you, circling ankles in and outwards so you don’t twist them, moving legs from the hip joint forward and back to loosen those joints up as well.

Footwork
Footwork is one of the cornerstones of good ballroom dancing – but it doesn’t mean only learning the steps, it’s also where your feet go and in what manner. One of the coolest things appearance-wise to learn, is to dance with one’s feet together instead of apart. Your feet should actually lightly brush against one another as they move. This means you have to develop a good sense of balance, because – let’s face it – it’s always easier to balance standing and moving with your feet apart. GFV

Kicksteps
Kicksteps – whatever dance you’re doing, try not to kick with your toes up. This is good if you’re doing Country Western dancing, but for Ballroom, try to point your toes down and to the outside. It looks better. GFV

Line dancing
“Line dancing” is a great way to work on body and foot technique. I still hear how many people can’t stand line dancing and I think it is because they haven’t tried it recently. No longer is it danced just to country music, line dancing is danced to every kind of music from swing to top 40 pop. Its fun and it teaches us coordination. This is how some dancers learn to syncopate for west coast swing or cha cha, its a chance to work on feet instead of lead and follow. Its great exercise and challenging to say the least. Line dancing has come a long way in the past 10 years or so. It may not be the greatest thing to sit and watch but it sure is fun to participate. Give it a try, work on foot positions, foot placements, arm styling, Cuban motion, etc. and you will find it improves your couples dancing as well.

Correct beat
Gentlemen: When starting a dance take your time finding the correct beat of music to begin on. Sometimes it helps to tap it out with your foot on the floor and start on the “1″ count. It is usually the easiest beat to find in the music.

Break on 2,3
Make sure if you are dancing Cha Cha that you are breaking on the “2,3″, it will feel better if you are dancing on the correct beat.

Ladies
Try to have patience and wait for the gentlemen to get the dance started, remember he is leading.

Grounding
The term “grounding” is used in dancing, but many dancers still have a hard time understanding this word.  Basically if you can picture yourself walking across an ice rink, most people will try to walk across the ice so that they don’t slip and fall. When dancing, you want to place your feet on the dance floor like you don’t want to let them slip. Accomplishing this requires pressing your center into the ground over top your feet. Your feet must be placed in which ever position that is correct and no movement or adjustments after the placement. This grounding technique will make your footwork cleaner and your balance more solid.

Turning Tip
Try using the “cup and pin” technique for the connection of hands while spinning or turning. This is done by the leader making a pin with his third and fourth fingers (preferably) and connecting the pads of those fingers to the followers hand which is cupped slightly with the thumb tucked to her forefinger (out of the way of getting caught during the turns). It is important that the follower keep her palm and wrist facing away from her and to connect to the leaders hand gently. The leader can then easily rotate her because her fingers and palm (cup) will rotate with his fingers (pin) as she turns.  In order for this to work, the follower has to have a soft tone in her arm, especially the shoulder and not push her hand above her head where she can’t see it. If this happens, it is impossible for the leader to tell you how many spins he wants and makes it difficult to bring the followers hand down to stop the rotation. All of this is important for good lead and follow technique.

Proper dance technique
Lots of dancers say to me when taking lessons, both group and private, that they just want to be good social dancers and not competitors, so why do they have to learn proper dance technique. I reply with this explanation, “without using good dance technique you don’t become a great social dancer”. If your not using the correct foot positions, or the proper posture it causes balance problems and lead and follow problems as well. Usually when a move doesn’t work, it is because of an incorrect body position or some other dance technique problem. I think that some people confuse technique with showmanship, that the competitors are trying to achieve. Learning proper technique makes you more enjoyable to dance with, whether you are a leader or a follower in couples’ dance. Good technique makes a dancer look smoother and helps the general flow of the dance executed.

Ladies
While dancing West Coast Swing be careful not to coaster on your anchors, anchor in place and wait for the forward lead on the next pattern.

Gentlemen
While dancing West Coast Swing allow the ladies to finish their anchor before leading them into your next pattern.

Beginner Dancer’s Tip
Try never to refuse a dance with someone who is asking you. It doesn’t feel very good to be rejected. This tip is for the ladies and the gentlemen, and a reminder to the Intermediate/Advanced dancers as well. This is how we learn to be better dancers; by dancing with lots of different partners and dancers of all levels.

Ladies
Patience while learning moves in group class, the gentlemen have lots more to think about then the ladies, focus in on your following skills and most importantly the connection you are giving to your partner, rather then back leading the pattern for yourself.

Gentlemen
When taking a partner on the floor to dance, try warming her up by some nice easy basics first. Then gradually move up the level of patterns after determining whether your dance partner is ready to follow the more advanced moves. Remember your job is to make her look good and in return, you will look good as well.

Beginners
Make sure you have strong basics in any dance you are learning, before moving up a level or learning new patterns. It will make the next level a lot more frustrating if you don’t know your basics well enough. We all started at the beginning and repeated the first level a few times before moving up. Sometimes as intermediate or advanced dancers, its a good idea to refresh our memories by taking a basic class again, as a reminder of a few things we have forgotten about.

Swing Posture
If you want to be cool dancing the Swing, posture and attitude are important and go hand-in-hand (no pun intended). Whereas one’s back is arched slightly backward in closed-position ballroom dances such as the Fox Trot, savvy Swing dancers are actually bent forward a little bit. This – along with slightly flexed knees – allows for quicker movements which is important since Swing features several reversal of directions moves.



Gift Articles We are engaged in manufacturing exquisite range of Gift Articles like Table Clock Set with Pen Stand, Crystal Gift Articles, Precious Gift Articles and Peacock Agarbathi Stand & Agarbathi Holder. Our collection is available in enthralling patterns and designs. These are extensively preferred in special occasions such as traditional ceremony, wedding ceremony and festivals. Table Clock Set With Pen Stand  We offer Table Clock Set with Pen Stand, which is widely used in corporate offices. Available in varied designs, our gamut is appreciated for fine craftsmanship. Designed for perfection, these are also used for gifting purposes. Features: Trendy and Classy Fine finish Light weight Crystal Gift Articles We provide Crystal Gift Articles that is crafted by master craftsmen. These are available in numerous designs and patterns to suit the requirement of client. Our array is an epitome of beauty, which is extensively used in special occasions as gift item. Features: Exquisite design Light weight Trendy and Classy Perfect finish Precious Gift Articles Avail from us an exotic range of Precious Gift Articles, which is specially crafted for traditional ceremonies and festivals. Made from quality raw material, our range comes in enticing designs, shapes and size. Features: Trendy and Classy Light weight Excellent finish Peacock Agarbathi Stand & Agarbathi Holder Our gamut of Peacock Agarbathi Stand & Agarbathi Holder is available in varied design, colors, shapes and sizes.  Keeping in mind the utility needs, our range is skillfully designed. These are perfect blend of traditional and contemporary value. Features: * Durable * Attractive designs * Excellent finish Pen Stand With Cutwork And Ganesha We export Pen Stand with Cutwork and Ganesha to various clients across the globe. Our collection is intricately crafted by our extremely skilled craftsmen. The unique cutwork and embellishment of Ganesha in pen stand makes it highly appealing. Features: * Exquisite design * Durable * Fine finish Clock Stand We present Clock Stand, which is designed and developed using quality raw material. These are available in enchanting designs to suit the requirement of market trends.  A perfect combination of style and functionality, our range is an ideal piece to gift. Features: Elegant design Durable Perfect finish Trophy The range of trophy available with us is designed with a majestic look to make the winner feel of being on top of the world. These trophies are corrosion resistant and have superior finish making them highly preferable amongst our clients. TREE WATCH – a gift article OUR  ANOTHER MAGNIFICIENT SILVER ARTICLE STUDDED WITH A  WONDERFUL SILVER WATCH WHICH WOULD SERVE AS A GOOD GIFT ITEM. Silver show pc Silver show pc krishna radha Candle Stands Offering a diverse range of candle stands.

Baskets are useful in a number of ways. All those gift baskets look so lovely and perfect due to the decorative baskets in which you place all the gift items. Such decorative baskets are commonly used in home decor as well. From flowers to artificial fruits, what can grace these better than the decorative baskets! Here’s more about these useful baskets and how to use them in various ways.

Decorative Baskets: Types

If you go to shop for the decorative baskets you are sure to be amazed about the huge variety available in these. You can find these in a number of materials, sizes and shapes. Choose from the wood, bamboo or wicker if you love the natural pieces. These are available in shades of brown, the cherry and light brown being the best ones. These are also available with or without lids and handles. Again the shapes are sure to surprise you!

Wooden baskets with lids are popularly used for placing jewelry pieces. To place some delicate items opt for decorative plastic baskets which come with lids. For giving an elegant touch to the table decorations or kitchen decorations you can have the glass baskets which can be used to place fruits and flowers. Decorative iron baskets are definitely the unique pieces you can have in your home. Decorative steel and aluminum baskets work best for kitchen use. Well, if you want to add a completely lavish touch to your table or home decor go for the silver baskets, available in a number of shapes and designs.

Decorative Baskets: Uses

Flowers
These are one of the best things to spice up the decorative basket. Flowers look lovely in these baskets. Moreover when arranged nicely you can also gift the fresh flower basket to someone. You can choose to have single colored and same flowers or a mix of different flowers. Add beautiful leaves and stalks. Add ribbons and laces and a sweet basket is ready, gift it or place it on a side table in your living room or in the window of the bedroom. This is also best for wedding or birthday decorations. You can also add dried flowers, leaves or potpourri to the basket and place it in your bedroom for a great feel. You can also add Spanish moss or small curly willow branches to this and the basket will look amazing. Add ribbons of suitable colors to adorn the basket. Read more about birthday gift baskets.

Plants
How about hanging decorative baskets in your porch? This will look extremely beautiful. Pick some hanging plants and get big round shaped baskets with no gaps in between. You can plant the saplings in these and just look how beautiful they appear. You can also opt for artificial hanging plants and fix them in these baskets. Hang the basket in the sunroom, porch or even in the interiors to add up to the house decorations. It’s sure to look classy.

Fruits
Using decorative baskets to place fruits is a popular idea. You can keep fruits in these baskets and then place the basket in your kitchen or dining table. What’s more, you can also opt for the artificial fruits available in stores and place them in the decorative wicker baskets. Place this fruit basket on your refrigerator or kitchen showcase, believe me, it will look amazing. Fresh fruit baskets are also best to be used as table centerpieces.

Storage
Large decorative baskets with lids are available in various shapes and can be used to keep unused items in your bedroom. Close the lid and tie an elegant metallic ribbon and just place it in a corner, this will hide the clutter and look like a decorative piece. Small decorative baskets can be used as pen stands on your office or study table. You can also use flat ones with lids to place your documents safely on the shelves. Those with lids can be used for carrying food and other items for picnic. Here are some picnic basket ideas.

Home Decor
Here are some other ways to use decorative baskets to enhance your home decor. Those bulky and stuffy soft toys can look even more adorable when placed in these baskets. For small soft toys you can pick small baskets and place 3-4 toys in one. Just keep this basket in your car or floating wall shelves. You can also have small cylindrical baskets and place one small toy in each of them and then hang these in various corners in your house. Add artificial organdy or silk flowers to this basket, colorful ribbons and place them on the open shelves or side-tables.

Gift Packing
Gift can be made more special by beautifully wrapping them. Decorative baskets and boxes can be best used for this purpose. Yes, these are widely used for decorative packaging. Gift baskets are given on various occasions, you can use wicker baskets of suitable shapes and unique shapes. Customized gift baskets or personalized gift baskets of wood, wicker or plastic are very popular. Decorative boxes are used to safely and creatively pack an item to be gifted. You can paint these and add embellishments to make them even more decorative.

The artists of modern dance have been known to pride their selves on taking the polar opposite road than of ballet. Ballet is the story of organization, symmetrical movement, traditions of companies, theatres as well as individuals. Modern dance on the other hand, is almost entirely the story of the personalities, spirits, quirks and hearts of individual dancers who devise their own philosophies, and set their own unique styles. These styles evolve and are passed down to students who then break away to create something new and just as personal. Therefore, studying the history of modern dance is rather like tracing the story of an extended family through several generations.

Modern Dance in America

Modern Dance began in America early in the 20th century when the predecessors of the artists we know today, began their own rebellions against both the formality of ballet and the predictability of popular show dancing of the period.

Their techniques and styles were very different; what they had in common was dissatisfaction with the options then available to dancers and the ultimate goal of conveying to their audiences a sense of inner and outer reality – an aim that still inspires modern dancers today.

Loie Fuller in La danse blanche.

The pioneers of modern dance in America can be attributed to Loie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Ruth St, Dennis, Ted Shawn and Maude Allan.

The First Generation of Modern Dance

During the 1920s, a passion for interpretive dancing swept America. The studies of excessive gesture had school children, college students and people all over the country performing a sort of simplified ballet in bare feet and flowing robes.

Isadora Duncan’s fame and Denishawn’s tours had introduced audiences and dancers alike to the concept of a new form of serious theatrical dancing. The ground work had been laid for the first generation of modern dancers who began developing the art as we know it today.

The first generation of modern dance: Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey, Mary Wigman, Charles Weidman, Hanya Holm, Oskar Schlemmer, Agnes de Mille, Gertrude Bodenweiser, Kurt Joos, Helen Tamaris and Lester Horton.

The innovative Hanya Holm.

The Second Generation of Modern Dance

By the end of World War II the original founders of modern dance had produced a crop of talented students who, as children often do, dispensed with their ‘parent’s’ well-worn theories and set out to create their own kind of dance.

The great battle for position and respectability had been fought and won already; it was not necessary for the second generation to take themselves or their art with the same deadly seriousness that had characterized their predecessors.

Alwin Nikolais’ avant garde dance demonstrates his love of striking shapes in costumes and scenery.

The second generation of modern dance: Erich Hawkins, Merce Cunningham, Paul Taylor, Anna Sokolow, William Bales, Jane Dudley, Sophie Maslow, Jean Erdman, Jose Limon, Ann Halprin, Sybil Shearer, Alwin Nikolais, Glen Tetleym Alvin Ailey, Katherine Dunham, Pearl Primus, Anita Enters, Edwin Strawbridge Steve Paxton, Yvonne Rainer, Meredith Monk, Twyla Tharp and James Waring.

The Modern Generation

The social and artistic upheavals of the late 1960s and 1970s signaled even more radical departures for modern dance. Modern dance today is much more sophisticated, both in technique and technology, than the dance begun by the founders. The founders composed their dances entirely of spirit, soul, heart and mind.

The concern with social problems and the condition of the human spirit is still there, but issues are presented with a theatricality that would have appalled many of the early modern dancers, so concerned with establishing themselves as serious artists.

Paul Taylor

The essence of modern dance is to look forward, not back. The détente between ballet and modern dance looks as if it will continue to enrich both forms, but neither is likely to lose its identity in the process.

It is impossible to predict what directions modern dance will take in the future, but if the changes during the next 50 years are as radical as those that took place during the last 50, dance audiences can look forward to an interesting time.